Respiration is the exchange of air. 36-37 So we come to the question: why is hydrogen peroxide safe for the soft tissues? Plants create food or energy in the form of sugar using water, carbon dioxide, and sunshine in the presence of chlorophyll and emit oxygen as a byproduct. A left shift indicates increased oxygen affinity of haemoglobin allowing less oxygen to be available to the tissues. Increases in its concentration shift the oxygen dissociation curve to the right. Imagine a gas bubble in liquid. There are several steps in the oxygen pathway from the atmosphere to the mitochondria, each of which may be a possible cause for the increase and decrease of oxygen that gets to the body tissues during an aerobic exercise. A low blood oxygen level, or hypoxemia, can occur due to reduced environmental oxygen or a problem affecting the respiratory or circulatory system. The and chains are arranged in pairs, and any conformational change in one polypeptide chain is transmitted to the others in the molecule. atelectasis: The collapse of a part of or the whole lung caused by inner factors, rather than a pneumothorax. These factors include the (1) pH (2) temperature (3) carbon dioxide (4) 2,3-BPG and (5) carbon monoxide. For simplicity, gases that only exist in the physically dissolved form (e.g., He, Ar, N2O) are usually considered, so that one does not have to deal with the complications added by binding to proteins in the blood or carriage in a chemically modified form. Learn about the physiological factors that affect oxygen delivery in your patients in this short Medmastery article. pH: The rate of oxygen transfer (OTR) from gas to liquid interface is a function of physicochemical properties of the cell culture medium, the geometrical parameters of the bioreactor, and presence of cells. Oxygen utilization rates of cell lines typically used in biomanufacturing. Thus, there is a greater opportunity for oxygen to release mass transfer into the cell culture medium. Increasing oxygen supply to a bioreactor drives this availability and can be controlled by modifying concentration (air vs O2 enrichment) and volumetric flow. Details of how the listed composition arises are discussed in standard monographs of respiratory physiology on the topic of ventilation/perfusion defects [6,10,54,113]. Shifts in the oxygen dissociation curve due to changes in temperature. Normally, it is thought that the RBC membrane prevents NO from interacting with hemoglobin. Cells obtain their oxygen in free and noncompound forms, called dissolved oxygen (DO). Bioreactor cell cultivation importance of aeration and ways to control kLa. This was originally noticed by Bohr (Bohr effect) and his colleagues (1904) as an effect of increased PCO2, but it has been shown to be primarily an effect of pH inside the red blood cell. Background Somatic tissue oxygen saturation (SstO2) is associated with systemic hypoperfusion. "Factors Influencing Oxygen Intake and Delivery to Muscle Tissues." Diagram of a bioreactor process showing key factors that can influence kLa values. BME 301 Lab #6 Fall 2015 Computer Simulation of Physiological Function Local Microvascular The RBCs are first lysed to release their hemoglobin, and then the stroma is removed by a variety of methods, including centrifugation, filtration and chemical extraction [50]. After pulmonary gas exchange takes place, the composition of arterial blood is shown (PaO2, [O2]a and SaO2). The p50 value as reported by the arterial blood gas analyser presents us with a short-hand way of determining whether the curve has shifted to the right or to the left. An increase in pH (alkalinity) increases the stability of the protein and increases oxygen-binding affinity. Hemoglobin A (A for adult) makes up 92% of the total hemoglobin concentration in a normal adult human. When temperature increase, the bond between oxygen and hemoglobin gets denatured and this increases the amount of oxygen and hemoglobin and decreases the concentration of oxyhemoglobin. Oxygen delivery (DO2) is calculated from total oxygen content (CaO2) and cardiac output (CO). This curve is an important tool for understanding how our blood carries and releases oxygen. A quantitative description of the gas exchange characteristics of the lungs leads to the conclusion that the exchange of most gases is limited by perfusion (i.e., blood flow). There are several important factors that affect the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen as therefore affect the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve. this is shown by three major lines of evidence: 1) when oxygen delivery is altered (by blood doping, hypoxia, or beta-blockade), vo2max changes accordingly; 2) the increase in vo2max with training results primarily from an increase in maximal cardiac output (not an increase in the a-v o2 difference); and 3) when a small muscle mass is Recently, it has been instructed that the high resting neuronal activity within the globus pallidus may make it extra weak to less intense, subacute oxidative stresses from mitochondrial toxins similar . "Factors Influencing Oxygen Intake and Delivery to Muscle Tissues." Factors that effect binding sites for O2 on Hb. Request PDF | Factors affecting intraoperative changes in regional cerebral tissue oxygen saturation in elderly patients undergoing laparoscopic hysterectomy | Objective: To explore the factors . Therefore, under some conditions, the BPG mechanism can be important for adaptation to hypoxia, especially to hypoxia caused by poor tissue blood flow. Oxygen therapy may be used to assist in raising blood oxygen levels. HBOCs are made from expired human blood or fresh bovine blood which undergoes numerous modifications to make them safe and effective oxygen carriers [12]. Answer: No necessarily. Actually, some of the Hb normally in red blood cells cannot bind oxygen (it is either metHb or HbCO), and the empirically determined oxygen-binding capacity of hemoglobin (CHb) is 1.34 ml O2 per gram Hb. How does exercise affect hemodilution? A curve representing the equilibrium binding of O2 to blood is shown in Figure 2. Diffusion takes place in the gas phase by the random motion of gas molecules. The extent to which the reaction will go in each direction depends on two factors: (1) the PO2 of the environment and (2) the affinity, or bond strength, between hemoglobin and oxygen. If you want to improve your understanding of key concepts in medicine, and improve your clinical skills, make sure to register for a free trial account, which will give you access to free videos and downloads. Several physiologic factors are responsible for shifting the curve left or right, such as pH, carbon dioxide (CO2), temperature, and 2,3-Disphosphoglycerate. When scaling a process within the same platform, it is important to use an identical method for measuring kLa. Thus, each Hb tetramer can bind four oxygen molecules. This is not a severe handicap, however, since the distances over which gas transfer must take place in the liquid phase are generally short (about 100 times shorter than that in the gas phase). Oxygen absorption increases for the first few minutes of low-intensity workout with a continuous power output before a stable condition is achieved. The classic Polar chest strap heart rate monitor also measure cardiac electrical activ. temperatures CO2 You are free to use it to write your own assignment, however you must reference it properly. Lecture 32, Slide 35 The ease with which haemoglobin releases oxygen to the tissues is controlled by erythrocytic 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) such that an increase in the concentration of 2,3-DPG decreases oxygen affinity and vice versa. Several different methods are used. Aerobic workout is an exercise that needs the heart to pump oxygenated blood to ensure that oxygen is delivered into the muscles working during the exercise. Oxygen is carried in the blood in two forms: (1) dissolved in plasma and RBC water (about 2% of the total) and (2) reversibly bound to hemoglobin (about 98% of the total). Inversely, when H + /pCO 2 decreases and pH increases, the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen increases. Figure 2. Thats it for now. Factors affecting oxygen delivery with bi-level positive airway pressure Delivered oxygen concentration during BiPAP is a complex interaction between the leak port type, the site of oxygen injection, the ventilator settings, and the oxygen flow. Gas transport to and from peripheral tissues. November 30, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/factors-influencing-oxygen-intake-and-delivery-to-muscle-tissues/. For pain caused by tissue distention due to lymphedema, adequate compression therapy will help alleviate pain. "Factors Influencing Oxygen Intake and Delivery to Muscle Tissues." The heme group is composed of a porphyrin ring which contains an iron (Fe) atom in its center. Hemoglobin A (HbA) is composed of two chains and two chains, symbolically written as 2 2. Smaller HBOCs, such as cross-linked tetramers, produce a larger rise in MAP than do larger polymerized versions, possibly due to extravasation of smaller components of HBOCs from the microcirculation. Graham's law of diffusion (1833) states that the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular weight (DMW). Aeration in the bioreactor typically occurs when: Agitation disperses the oxygen bubbles and promotes mass transfer of the gas bubbles through the gasliquid (cell culture medium) interface. In the present review, we discuss the current evidence regarding microbiome . Measuring oxygen uptake is one way of measuring exercise intensity. Systemic arterial blood -> tissues Intro: Alveolus -> pulmonary capillary: Pulmonary capillary blood -> systemic arterial blood: Grippi, MA. Oxygen delivery (DO2) is defined as the amount of oxygen transported per unit time and is dependent on oxygen content and flow of the blood. Solubility, diffusion coefficient, and Krogh's diffusion coefficient for various gases relative to values for oxygen. Although the rightward shift interferes with oxygen loading in the lungs, this never causes a problem in oxygen transport. The standard conditions under which oxygen binding is measured are T = 37 C, pH = 7.4 and PCO2 = 40 mm Hg. Because of this association with cell density, kLa values are particularly useful in the following scenarios: The conventional scaleup of bioprocesses is based on physicochemical and geometric similarity. These changes increase oxygen delivery to exercising tissues. Cells require oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide which is a byproduct of . Therefore, the OTR, through its correlation to kLa, defines a theoretical maximum cell density that could be achieved in cell culture. The carbon-fluorine bonds give them their unique chemical and biological inertness. The amount of oxygen necessary varies from organ system to organ system and is dependent on whether the subject is at rest or is exercising, or whether hypercatabolic states, like infection, are present. An oronasal mask was attached to the manikin. An increase in this oxygen residence time improves kLa. A left shift in the oxygen dissociation curve ( P50 or Hb-O2 affinity) can be produced by decreases in any of the following: T, PCO2, [H+] ( pH) or [2,3 DPG]. After all, oxidation from any source can affect human tissues in numerous negative ways. AC Guyton, JG Widdicombe, Baltimore: University Park Press, pp. From CC Michel, The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by the blood, in Respiratory Physiology, ed. Without these modifications, the oxygen affinity of the stroma-free hemoglobin is too great to facilitate oxygen release in the tissues due to the reduction in 2,3 DPG. For example, CO2 is 24 times more soluble than O2 in water. Table 2 gives the partial pressures of the four respiratory gases in dry air, moist tracheal air, alveoli and arterial and venous blood. Shifts in the oxygen dissociation curve can be summarized as follows. Thus, the oxygen content of blood in the presence of carbon monoxide is much lower than normal. kLa, when combined with process engineering parameters (i.e., tip speed, power input), can be used to experimentally determine the cell density in a larger bioreactor compared with a smaller bioreactor. 67104, 1974. 2. In plain areas, the blood oxygen saturation of normal people is above 94%, and the oxygen supply is insufficient below 90%. This has physiological importance during exercise since the temperature of muscle tissue is higher than 37C, and oxygen can be unloaded from Hb more easily at the higher temperature (lowered oxygen affinity). At a hematocrit of 45%, this yields a blood [Hb] of 150 g/1 or 15 g%. New to Ficks law? It depends on the technology used and the purpose of the device. (more). A multitude of factors can affect oxygen consumption (Fig. Thus, the relative rates of diffusion of CO2 and O2 are equal to (32/44) or 0.85. Carbon monoxide binds tightly to hemoglobin (high affinity for hemoglobin), and the cumulative effect of its binding up to the limit given above by Haldane's first law shows that very low partial pressures of CO (<1 mm Hg) can effectively block a large fraction of the heme-binding sites from oxygen. 3, 2017, pp. The oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin determines how much oxygen is carried in the blood. This analysis can be found in many monographs on respiratory physiology, as well as the more involved case of oxygen exchange where oxygen binding to hemoglobin inside the red blood cells must be taken into account [47,113]. Its molecular weight is 64,400 Da. Chapter 4, Oxygen Transport. Identify factors that affect safety in a person's environment. As seen in Figure 4, increased H+ activity (decreased pH) also lowers the affinity of Hb for O2. Tissue hypoxia supervenes when tissue oxygen tension (PO2) falls below a critical point, and the point where this occurs can be predicted from the systemic oxygen delivery or extraction ratio. The hemoglobin is then called methemoglobin (metHb) or ferrihemoglobin (Fe+3 will not bind oxygen). They are capable of dissolving large quantities of gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide; however, they carry less oxygen than hemoglobin itself [68,95]. Diagram of a gas bubble in liquid, showing how the bubble is released, solubilized, and transferred to a cell. Age. VO2 max is also an indicator for endurance for sports such as cross-country skiing, triathalons and long-distance running. Clinical presentations: gas exchange and transport. Thus, there is a greater opportunity for oxygen to release mass transfer into the cell culture medium. The protein hemoglobin is a molecule which is responsible for carrying almost all of the oxygen in the blood. hypoxia show that the fall in cellular oxygen resulting from an increase in intercapillary distance is more severe if delivery of oxygen to tissues is reduced because of "hypoxic" hypoxia (a fall in Pa O 2) rather than "stagnant . There are at least six genes that control globin synthesis in humans, resulting in the formation of six structurally different polypeptide chains that are designated , , , , , and chains. Figure 1. These abnormal hemoglobins (relative to hemoglobin A) often have different oxygen-binding properties. As discussed here, kLa is impacted by multiple factors. Sex. James, Carl A., et al. For this reason, four different types of HBOCs have been considered: cross-linked hemoglobins, cross-linked and polymerized hemoglobins, hemoglobins conjugated to macromolecules and encapsulated hemoglobins [12]. One of the most important functions of bioreactors is providing dissolved oxygen to cells continuously through a process called aeration. Each a chain has 141 amino acids, and each chain has 146. StudyCorgi. Disclaimer: Services provided by StudyCorgi are to be used for research purposes only. These molecules are hydrocarbon chains that are highly substituted with fluorine atoms. Unlike hemoglobin molecules, PFCs do not bind oxygen, so that oxygen is carried by PFCs only in the dissolved form. Some general comments about gas exchange and diffusion will be made, followed by a description of how oxygen is carried in the blood. There are two different arrangements of the subunits within the tetramer that are much more stable than all others. However, the cell-free hemoglobin of HBOCs reacts freely with NO to produce HbNO from deoxyhemoglobin and methemoglobin and nitrate from oxyhemoglobin, resulting in a reduction in NO and leading to an unopposed vasoconstriction [50]. It also describes the overall transfer of gas between the lungs and blood and between the blood and tissue. 67104, 1974. AC Guyton, JG Widdicombe, Baltimore: University Park Press, pp. 2-7). Oxygen consumption can be increased by several pathological conditions including catabolic states (sepsis, burns, etc. Ordinarily, about 1% of the hemoglobin in a red blood cell is in this form. During batch cell culture, OUR (or OTR) is initially low during the lag phase, where cells are selfsynthesizing and there is little gain of cell density. 314-329. Nanoscale graphene-based materials (GBMs) enable targeting subcellular structures of the nervous system, a feature crucial for the successful engineering of alternative nanocarriers to deliver drugs and to treat neurodisorders. This quantity is called the oxygen-binding capacity of blood (CB). Several factors influence the binding of oxygen to hemoglobin: temperature, pH, P CO 2 and 2,3 diphosphoglycerate (2,3 DPG).Increasing the temperature of Hb lowers its affinity for O 2 and shifts the oxygen dissociation curve to the right, as shown in Figure 3. The primary factor determining whether oxygen is loaded . The OTR should remain constant for a bioreactor platform with geometric similarity (such as Xcellerex bioreactors). The lungs of an average person exercising at sea level do an excellent job of saturating the blood in their arteries with oxygen. kLa values will vary widely with sparger characteristics, including number, pore size, and surface area, because these factors affect bubble size, gas velocity, and flow rates. Physiological factors that can shift the oxyhemoglobin Changes in pH and the Bohr effect Changes in the position of the curve with changes in red blood cell (RBC) intracellular hydrogen ion concentration constitute the Bohr effect. Diffusion coefficients in the gas phase are Dgas 101 cm2/sec. Oxygen supply is carefully controlled for optimal cell growth by manipulating bioreactor parameters. Partial pressures of gases in gas and blood phases. 3. A right shift indicates decreased oxygen affinity of haemoglobin allowing more oxygen to be available to the tissues. Because of concerns about the extent and safety of the blood supply, including adverse transfusion reactions and inadvertent transmission of infectious diseases, there has been a great effort to produce artificial oxygen carriers that can act as substitutes for whole blood transfusions. These opposing protonation and deprotonation reactions occur in equilibrium resulting in little overall change in blood pH. AC Guyton, JG Widdicombe, Baltimore: University Park Press, pp. Measurement of volumetric (OUR) and determination of specific (qO2) oxygen uptake rates in animal cell cultures. Composition of air. If one begins with a deoxygenated sample of blood and allows it to equilibrate in steps with gas mixtures of increasing PO2, the binding sites for oxygen will become progressively occupied until, at a high enough PO2, all of them will contain oxygen. 2,3 DPG is a glycolytic intermediate produced within the RBC that affects the affinity of Hb for oxygen. Although high kLa values are desirable, it is important to consider the actual operating conditions and implications to cell viability and associated process costs. Higher oxygen availability drives kLa increases. The fractional volume of blood occupied by RBCs is called the hematocrit, and its value is a little less than 50% in human adults (40% for females and 45% for males). Oxygen dissociation curve-relating oxygen bound to hemoglobin (oxygen saturation, SO2) as a function of partial pressure of oxygen (PO2). Chronically poor perfusion may result in . Regulation of Tissue Oxygenation. Gas bubble size and residency time are highly dependent upon three mixing conditions: impeller type, speed, and location(s). Most commonly the nitrogen stripping (i.e., gassingout) method is employed. Factors affecting extraction ratio of oxygen from capillary blood. From CC Michel, The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by the blood, in Respiratory Physiology, eds. Thus, differences in diffusion through the liquid phase are determined primarily by the solubility coefficient. 1. During exercise, the lungs help to provide the body with energy by bringing oxygen into the body and expelling carbon dioxide which is a by-product when the body generates energy. 2022. Hgb 5) or carbon monoxide poisoning. This is known as the Bohr effect. The portion contributed by dissolved O2 [PaO2 x 0.003] is usually negligible except in cases of extreme anemia (i.e. The physiologic basis of pulmonary gas exchange: implications for clinical interpretation of arterial blood gases. Ordinarily, the Bohr effect is not important except in exercise. For the most updated list of ABA Keywords and definitions go to, OA-SPA Pediatric Anesthesia Virtual Grand Rounds. Note that CB is proportional to the hematocrit of the blood. In the presence of an HBOC, the total oxygen concentration of blood is given by: Perfluorocarbon-based emulsions (PFCs) are mixtures of fluorocarbons and emulsifying agents that differ greatly in structure and mechanism of action from HBOCs. First of all, the type of blood oxygen probe of pulse oximeter is divided into human body type and child multi-function type. Table 3 summarizes the solubilities and diffusion coefficients for common respiratory gases relative to those factors for oxygen (i.e., the values for a given gas are divided by the value of that variable for oxygen), where is the solubility (Henry's law coefficient), D is the diffusion coefficient (gas phase), and K = D is Krogh's diffusion coefficient (liquid phase). Finally, 'oxygendebt' is thetermusedto Some factors that could be influencing the oxygen increase and decrease could be, the diffusion capacity of the pulmonary system, the bloods oxygen carrying capacity, and the characteristics of the skeletal muscle (James et al. The thirteen factors are: (1) Size of Explant (2) Source of Explant (3) Age of the Explant (4) Seasonal Variation (5) Oxygen Gradient (6) Quality and Intensity of Light (7) Temperature (8) Plant Hormones (9) Culture Medium (10) Agar-Agar (11) pH of the Medium (12) Ploidy Level and (13) Age of . critical care patients), HbF Right shifts (Hgb unloads more O 2 ): CADET right face! Surfactants, or surface-active agents, are used as emulsifiers to form small droplets that are 0.1 to 0.3 m in diameter. 2015. Thus, at a PO2 of 100 mm Hg (typical value for arterial blood), 100 ml of plasma contains 0.3 ml O2 (or 0.3 vol%). Some factors that could be influencing the oxygen increase and decrease could be, the diffusion capacity of the pulmonary system, the blood's oxygen carrying capacity, and the characteristics of the skeletal muscle (James et al. Defining the determinants of endurance running performance in the heat. Temperature vol. Normal amount of Hb in blood. If you are the original creator of this paper and no longer wish to have it published on StudyCorgi, request the removal. Reuse of OpenAnesthesia content for commercial purposes of any kind is prohibited. 2,3 DPG is a charged ion that cannot permeate the RBC membrane. The OTR and OUR rates are correlated by the oxygen mass transfer coefficient, kLa. November 30, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/factors-influencing-oxygen-intake-and-delivery-to-muscle-tissues/. In: Wagner, PD. Viral replication is defined by the cellular microenvironment and one key factor is local oxygen . Gas exchange in the lung. printed in great britain factors in oxygen delivery to tissue 277 the use of nadh fluorescence as an indicator of intracellular redox states is based upon the original discovery of nadh fluorescence by otto warburg (1948), the observation, some 20 yr later, of a similar fluorescence from suspensions of yeast cells by duysens (duysens and amesz, All normal and most abnormal hemoglobin molecules are tetramers consisting of two different pairs of polypeptide chains, each chain forming a monomeric subunit. In 100 ml of blood, there is about 15 g of Hb, so that 100 ml of blood has the capacity to bind 20.1 ml of oxygen. 67104, 1974. Oxygen from the spargers dissolves in the cell culture through convection with the help of agitation. critical care patients), HbF, CO2 [Bohr effect: hypercarbia causes drop in pH, decreases affinity for oxygen (right shift) at tissues and facilitates unloading of O2.]. Temperature, blood pH, PCO2, and BPG all affect hemoglobin's affinity for O2 in different ways. From CC Michel, The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by the blood, in Respiratory Physiology, eds. CO2 by itself, at constant pH, also affects the oxygen dissociation curve such that increased PCO2 shifts the curve to the right (i.e., lowers the affinity of Hb for oxygen). For example, an electrocardiogram (EKG) device measures cardiac electrical activity at the skin to calculate heart rate. We investigated the clinical utility of SstO2 during LDLT for identifying postoperative kidney dysfunction. The rightward shift in the oxygen dissociation curve is more important at lower PO2. Adapted from Thomas and Lumb 6 and Leach and Treacher 12 Open in new tab Table 1 They are capable of delivering oxygen to the tissues passively and can carry an amount of oxygen proportional to the ambient PO2 without having to rely on the red blood cells [68]. O 2 Delivery = CBF CaO 2 where CBF = ml/min and CaO 2 = ml O 2 /ml blood Therefore, the units for O 2 delivery are ml O 2 /min. The data support a model where the low-oxygen environment of the lymph node may suppress HIV replication and promote latency and identify a mechanism that may contribute to the limited efficacy of latency reversing agents in reactivating HIV and suggest new strategies to control latent HIV-1. (more). Without hemoglobin, blood could not carry enough O 2 to meet minimal tissue oxygenation requirements.. Hemoglobin allows whole blood (plasma plus cellular components) to carry about 20 mL of O 2 per 100 mL of blood at a normal PaO 2 of 100 mm Hg. Bioreactor hardware design (e.g., stirrer geometry and aerationsparger option) and running parameters (e.g., gas flow rate or power input) are altered to achieve a similar kLa, providing a similar cell density. Henry's law states that the amount of oxygen dissolved in plasma is directly proportional to PO2: [O2] = PO2, where = 0.003 ml O2 (100 ml plasma)1 mm Hg1. In this short article, learn about how to calculate the arteriovenous difference and cardiac output. Increasing temperatures inversely affects both the volumetric mass transfer coefficient and oxygen solubility in culture medium. Physiology of oxygenation The delivery of oxygen to body cells is a . The following table lists the rates for common industrial cell lines (1, 2). Surface tension: The inward force created by films of molecules that can reduce the area of a surface. Temperature affects the stability of the protein structure, which decreases oxygen-binding affinity. 1995. During the superimposed stress of exercise, a constant oxygen consumption was maintained between hematocrit ranges of 50 to 15 or 25%, respectively. Here are four key variables that can affect kLa values: When gas bubble size decreases, surface area and gas residency time increases, causing bubbles to stay in the culture longer. What factors affect hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen? Some of these are under our control. In this situation, the oxygen dissociation curve is shifted to the right to allow easier unloading of oxygen from Hb in the tissues. Beyond the lung: oxygen delivery and tissue oxygenation N. SONI, W.J. There are several theories as to why the pressor effect occurs [9,50,89], but the most favored possibility has something to do with the interaction of hemoglobin with nitric oxide (NO). This causes oxygen to be released to the tissues at as much as 10 mm Hg higher tissue oxygen pressure than would be the case without this increased BPG. This has been recognised from the 1920s [I] but it is only in From CC Michel, The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by the blood, in Respiratory Physiology, eds. During the comparison, kLa is utilized as a target performance metric when a process is transferred from one bioreactor platform to another design. HALLIDAY Tissue oxygenation is dependent on three main factors: oxygen uptake in the lung, oxygen binding in the blood and oxygen delivery to the tissues by the cardiovascular system. OpenAnesthesia content is intended for educational purposes only and not intended as medical advice. Oxygen utilization rate (OUR) is often cell linedependent. Table 1 Factors that affect the standard human oxygen dissociation curve. Continuing Education Activity. Maximal oxygen uptake (V. O 2 max) decreases by 10% per decade in men and women regardless of age and . Factors that influence oxygen consumption and oxygen delivery Open in new tab From the equations above, it is apparent that tissue hypoxia may be caused by: A decrease in arterial oxygen content This can result from a decrease in oxygen carrying capacity (anaemic hypoxia) or a decrease in the amount of oxygen bound to Hb (hypoxic hypoxia). Blood remains red because the absorption spectrum for HbCO is similar to that of HbO2, except that it is shifted slightly to higher wavelengths compared with HbO2. Contraceptive Adoption, Fertility, and the Family in Zambia: Book Analysis, Defining the determinants of endurance running performance in the heat.. Various factors can affect the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen: pH/pCO2 - When H + /pCO 2 increases and pH decreases, Hb enters the T state and its affinity for oxygen decreases. Kidney dysfunction may lead to increased mortality and morbidity in patients who undergo living donor liver transplantation (LDLT). In: Tino, G and Grippi, MA. The fractional oxygen saturation of Hb is the amount of oxygen combined with Hb divided by the oxygen-binding capacity of the blood (20.1 vol% at normal Hct). AC Guyton, JG Widdicombe, Baltimore: University Park Press, pp. So, oxygen delivery is calculated as follows. The concentration of Hb inside red blood cells is 330 g/l (= 33 g%). The presence of CO prevents loading of oxygen due to competition for the same binding sites. A level under 90% requires emergency care. Note that all the D values are about the same since the molecular weights of these gases are similar. However, the amount of oxygen being delivered to the tissues cannot be determined solely using pulse oximetry. Finally, there are no obvious physical signs of carbon monoxide poisoning since carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless and tasteless; it does not produce respiratory reflexes like coughing or sneezing; there is no increase in ventilation (thus, PaO2 is normal); and no feeling of difficulty in breathing. Among GBMs, graphene oxide (GO) nanoflakes, showing good dispersibility in water solution and being rich of functionalizable oxygen groups, are ideal core structures . The latter can be a major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with connective-tissue diseases (CTD). An O2 sat level below 95% is not normal. In cases where there is a significant (3040%) loss of blood volume (i.e., hemorrhage, see Chapter 9), it is important to restore blood volume as soon as possible, so that the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen to the tissues is not seriously compromised. Fick's first law states that the amount of gas transferred per unit time (N/t) across a membrane of thickness x is proportional to the area (A) available for exchange and the partial pressure difference (P) of the gas across the membrane. This paper was written and submitted to our database by a student to assist your with your own studies. Krogh's diffusion coefficient (K = aD) is equal to the diffusion coefficient (D) times the solubility (a) of a gas in the fluid through which the gas diffuses. High PO2 drives the equation to the right (favors the loading reaction); at the high PO2 of the pulmonary capillaries, almost all Po2 (mmHg) It is composed of four subunits, each with a heme group plus a globin chain. Decreases in pH shift the curve to the right, while increases shift the curve to the left. When CO binds to one of the binding sites on hemoglobin, the increased affinity of the other binding sites for oxygen leads to a left shift of the oxygen dissociation curve and interferes with unloading of oxygen in the tissues. ncbi.nlm.nih/pubmed/ Lecture 33, Slide 26- The pressure usually returns to baseline within 2 hours following administration in most animal studies. Factors that effect PO2. The stroma-free hemoglobin is then purified and undergoes modifications to cross-link, polymerize or conjugate it to other compounds. The blood of a normal adult human contains at least six different species of hemoglobin molecules, all of which have the same principal structure and function. Oxygen delivery It is easy to forget that while purse oximeters measure the amount of oxygen being carried by Hb in arterial blood, the real purpose of this assessment is to determine how much oxygen is reaching the body cells. Although [metHb] <10% is well tolerated at normal or mild levels of anemia, 10% of an [Hb] <5 g/dL significantly impairs oxygen-carrying capacity and functional oxygen delivery. International Anesthesia Research Society. There are several major physiological factors which influence the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen. Factors Affecting V. O 2 max. AC Guyton, JG Widdicombe, Baltimore: University Park Press, pp. Under normal resting conditions, an adult of average size consumes about 250 mL of oxygen per minute (VO2). A similar analysis is carried out for oxygen in the peripheral circulation in Chapter 8. The microbiome can trigger and maintain immune-mediated diseases and is associated with the severity and prognosis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, which is the prototype of interstitial lung diseases (ILDs). One can carry out an analysis of gas exchange by using Fick's first law to determine the gas transport that takes place between an alveolus and a small volume of blood as it traverses the gas exchange region of the lung. Michael is Vice Chairman in the Department of Medicine and Associate Professor of Medicine in the Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Division at the Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, USA. Number of functional RBCs. 1995. In areas where oxygen concentration is high, such as the lungs, binding of oxygen causes haemoglobin to release protons, which recombine with bicarbonate to eliminate carbon dioxide during exhalation. Excessive foam might also be generated, requiring a high concentration of antifoam that could hinder downstream processing. Their characteristics in regard to oxygen transport and regulation of tissue oxygenation will now be presented. Increases in [metHb], as a percentage of total Hb, decrease the functional oxygen available to tissues, adding to the impact of low [Hb]. From CC Michel, The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by the blood, in Respiratory Physiology, eds. 67104, (more). PCO2 affects oxygen binding indirectly . Figure 5 specifies the normal partial pressures and contents (or concentrations) for oxygen. Additionally, higher air flow rates require a larger exhaust filter area, driving consumable cost increases. Continued low oxygen levels may lead to respiratory or cardiac arrest. However, this principle does not always lead to increases in OTR wherein antifoam also reduces bubble mobility, which subsequently reduces the kLa (3). Bymeansofthe Fickequationit canbe shown that 'oxygen consumption' equates with the product ofblood flow and arteriovenous difference foroxygen. Several hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) are in various stages of development for the purpose of treating hemorrhagic and hypovolemic shock in trauma patients and other circumstances where there is a compromised oxygen supply [9,12,116,117]. pH A decrease in pH (acidity) shifts the dissociation curve to the right while an increase in pH (alkalinity) shifts the dissociation curve to the left. The bound oxygen content is proportional to hematocrit: The oxygen dissociation curve is said to have a sigmoid shape, which reflects the cooperative nature of oxygen binding to Hb. Overall oxygen transport. (2022) 'Factors Influencing Oxygen Intake and Delivery to Muscle Tissues'. Ruffieux PA, von Stockar U, Marison IW. For the lung, x is about 0.5 ma very thin barrier; and A is about 70 m2a very large surface area. OXYGENATION OBJECTIVES Define oxygenation Describe oxygen transportation and uptake List factors affecting oxygenation Outline signs and symptoms of hypoxia Explain oxygen administration 2. definition Oxygenation is the delivery of oxygen to the body tissues and cells. 67104, 1974. The oxygen dissociation curve can be shifted right or left by a variety of factors. The binding of oxygen to hemoglobin will be discussed, including the oxygen saturation (or dissociation) curve and factors (allosteric effectors) which cause it to shift. Hypoxia can vary in intensity from mild to . The most critical limitation of PFCs is the linear relationship between dissolved oxygen concentration and PO2. Two types of fluids have been developed for this purpose, hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers and perfluorocarbon emulsions. The various factors and their effects on the curve are described in Table 1, and also the effects of a change in position of the curve on oxygen loading and unloading. View Lab Report - Lab_6_Modeling_Oxygen_Delivery_to_Tissue from BME 301 at Pennsylvania State University. The oxygen dissociation curve is affected by several important factors that affect the affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen thereby affecting the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve. Hemoglobin is loaded with oxygen as it passes through the pulmonary capillaries and is then transported to the peripheral tissues where the oxygen is unloaded. Be aware of reported kLa values in which high salt concentrations are used, because this can prevent bubble coalescing. In situations where there is simultaneously enough oxygen and carbon monoxide to fully saturate the hemoglobin, these two ligands compete for the same binding sites, and the relative amount of each bound to Hb is given by Haldane's first law: Effect of carbon monoxide on the oxygen dissociation curve. Therefore, it is important to note the temperature conditions from vendorsupplied characterization data. However, a pressor effect has been observed in cases where small amounts of HBOC have been infused, too small to have an effect on oxygen supply. Pittman RN. Bioreactors are widely used to cultivate cells during the development and manufacturing of modern biopharmaceuticals. From the molecular weight of Hb, one can calculate that 1 g of Hb can combine with 1.39 ml of oxygen. Factors that affect the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve will also affect oxygen delivery: Normal p50 is 27mmHg Left shifts (Hgb holds onto O2 more): carbon monoxide, methemoglobin, hypophosphatemia (i.e. It is important that the level of metHb be kept low since it will not reversibly bind oxygen and thus cannot carry oxygen. As cell density increases during the exponential phase, OUR increases until OTR becomes a limiting rate, as determined by the mass transfer of oxygen into the bulk liquid. The affinity of Hb for oxygen increases steadily as oxygen saturation goes from 0% to 100% for a given oxygen dissociation curve. Research on the relationship between PDX-1 and diabetes has gained much attention because of the increasing prevalence of diabetes melitus (DM). November 30, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/factors-influencing-oxygen-intake-and-delivery-to-muscle-tissues/. kLa can be represented by the following equation: Any change to process and engineering parameters or to physical characteristics will have an impact on kLa and should be considered when evaluating bioreactor platforms and performing scaling calculations. Another mechanism that has been proposed to account for the arteriolar vasoconstriction and elevated MAP considers that the HBOC increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood and produces an oversupply of oxygen to the tissues, resulting in a compensatory autoregulatory vasoconstriction [89,116,117]. Increases in RBC [H+] cause decreases in [2,3 DPG], and decreases in RBC [H+] cause increases in [2,3 DPG]. In many people with hypoxemia, several factors contribute to the low blood oxygen level. Cells are very sensitive to changes in the culture environmental conditions, such as aeration, agitation, nutrients, and pH. For this discussion the gas bubble contains oxygen, and the liquid is the liquid in a bioreactor. Since plasma cannot carry much oxygen, due to its low solubility for oxygen, and hemoglobin is the oxygen carrier within RBCs, it is natural to consider hemoglobin when formulating an artificial oxygen carrier. In addition, other environmental factors and diseases can also affect oxygen- carrying capacity and delivery; the same is true for carbon dioxide levels, blood pH, andbody temperature. StudyCorgi. When gas bubble size decreases, surface area and gas residency time increases, causing bubbles to stay in the culture longer. In addition, other environmental factors and diseases can also affect oxygen-carrying capacity and delivery; the same is true for carbon dioxide levels, blood pH, and body temperature. Oxygen dissociation curve-relating oxygen bound to hemoglobin (oxygen saturation, SO2) as a function of partial pressure of oxygen (PO2). For example, high air flow rates can cause cell damage due to shear forces. The partial pressure of oxygen is shown in the dry air, humidified tracheal air (PIO2) and the alveolar compartment (PAO2). 2,3 DPG is important during respiratory compensation seen in acclimatization to altitude, whereby the hypoxic hyperventilation of high altitude causes PCO2 and H+ to decrease (left shift of oxygen dissociation curve), leading to an increase in 2,3 DPG which shifts the curve back to the right. | Factors affecting delivery of oxygen to tissues. Increasing the temperature of Hb lowers its affinity for O2 and shifts the oxygen dissociation curve to the right, as shown in Figure 3. A growing body of evidence suggest that tissue oxygen extraction may be impaired in adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and sepsis. Factors that affect the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve will also affect oxygen delivery: carbon monoxide, methemoglobin, hypophosphatemia (i.e. These factors include: Temperature A decrease in temperature shifts the curve to the left while an increase in temperature shifts the curve to the right. Following uptake of 5 vol% of oxygen from the arterial blood by the peripheral tissues (resting conditions), the composition of venous blood is shown (PvO2, [O2]v and SvO2). One of these two quaternary conformations predominates when the iron atoms are saturated with oxygen (oxy structure), and the other predominates when these binding sites are vacant (deoxy structure). To date, approximately 200 structurally different human hemoglobin variants have been reported. From CC Michel, The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by the blood, in Respiratory Physiology, ed. Carbon monoxide has a very high affinity for Hb (200300 times that of oxygen in normal adults). From CC Michel, The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by the blood, in Respiratory Physiology, eds. The structure of the Hb molecule has been elucidated by the x-ray crystallographic work of Perutz and his co-workers [14,30]. 1. Here are four key variables that can affect kLa values: 1. When it is outside the RBC, hemoglobin rapidly dissociates into 32 kDa dimers and 16 kDa or monomers, both of which are rapidly filtered in the kidney and can precipitate in the loop of Henle, resulting in severe renal toxicity [36]. Both internal and external factors affect VO2 max. Used with permission of the publisher. In a bioreactor, mixing is used to eliminate gradients of concentration (cell, gas, medium, and nutrient), temperature, and other properties. Blood oxygen levels below 80 percent may compromise organ function, such as the brain and heart, and should be promptly addressed. During hemorrhagic shock (decreased DO 2 ), the patient's physiologic compensatory mechanisms and clinician's intervention strategy. At elevated PO2 (breathing 100 % oxygen or during hyperbaric oxygenation), however, the physically dissolved form of oxygen can become significant. Normally, the Fe is in the +2 redox state (ferrous) and can reversibly bind oxygen. Thus, the concentration of oxygen carried by PFCs is given by Henry's law [85,97]: Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences, San Rafael (CA). Oxygen solubility in pure water falls with increasing temperature (i.e., 0.5 103 kg/m3 between 35C and 30C; 3). Then, on the return trip to the lungs, the oxygen that was lost in the arteries is recaptured in the veins, giving the appearance of inefficient oxygen delivery. Activities like using steroids interfere with the bloods oxygen carrying capacity by changing the blood hemoglobin content as steroids increase the amount of oxygen in the blood. In a nutshell, highly metabolic tissues (like skeletal muscle) result in HIGHER what? Hypoxia is a state in which oxygen is not available in sufficient amounts at the tissue level to maintain adequate homeostasis; this can result from inadequate oxygen delivery to the tissues either due to low blood supply or low oxygen content in the blood (hypoxemia). The curve is known as the oxygen saturation curve or the oxygen dissociation curve and expresses the relationship between PO2 and the bound oxygen content. The pulmonary system is made up of the nose, trachea, larynx, bronchi and lungs. John has taught college science courses face-to-face and online since 1994 and has a doctorate in physiology. The natural fluid for such transfusions is whole blood since it contains all the biologically relevant components normally present in blood. Shifts in the oxygen dissociation curve due to changes in pH. A right shift in the oxygen dissociation curve (P50 or Hb-O2 affinity) can be produced by increases in any of the following: T, PCO2, [H+] ( pH) or [2,3 DPG]. Well help you make the right decisions for yourself and your patients. Efficiency of gas exchange. We conducted this study to test the hypothesis that delivered oxygen concentration using this configuration is affected by the choice of leak port, oxygen injection site, and ventilator settings. A thorough understanding of a bioreactor platforms physical design, mixing mechanism, sparging options, as well as cell line characteristics will inform decisionmaking when scaling cell culture processes up and out. https://studycorgi.com/factors-influencing-oxygen-intake-and-delivery-to-muscle-tissues/. At physiological PO2 (40 < PO2 < 100 mm Hg), only a small amount of oxygen is dissolved in plasma since oxygen has such a low solubility. "Factors Influencing Oxygen Intake and Delivery to Muscle Tissues." Compare this curve with the one labeled 50% HbCO just above it (HbCO = 50%) that also has an oxygen-binding capacity of one-half the normal value and note that the blood with HbCO has a left-shifted oxygen dissociation curve. From CC Michel, The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by the blood, in Respiratory Physiology, eds. "This makes complete sense," Stamler added, "if one appreciates that blood flow is the major determinant of oxygen delivery." Free online course get to know bioreactors, Scalable single-use bioreactor platform 10 to 2000 L. Oxygen diffuses through overlay to the cell culture medium interface. StudyCorgi, 30 Nov. 2022, studycorgi.com/factors-influencing-oxygen-intake-and-delivery-to-muscle-tissues/. Bioreactors, therefore, are designed with different impeller types, combinations, and locations to achieve target kLa values without creating these shear forces. Total oxygen content is calculated from the concentration of hemoglobin ( [Hb]) and oxygen saturation (SaO2); cardiac output is the overall blood flow to peripheral tissues, calculated as the sum of left ventricular stroke volume (SV) and heart rate (HR). In the liquid phase, diffusion rates of gases are generally 10,000 times smaller than those in gaseous environments due to the much shorter mean free path between collisions with other molecules (e.g., the solvent); thus, Dliquid 105 cm2/s [55]. Retrieved from https://studycorgi.com/factors-influencing-oxygen-intake-and-delivery-to-muscle-tissues/, StudyCorgi. developmental level, lifestyle (includes occupation & social behavior: stress, working . P50 is defined as the PO2 at which oxygen saturation is 50%. What factors affect the loading and unloading of oxygen from hemoglobin? Used with permission of the publisher. Carbon monoxide is dangerous for several reasons. 323). 32-35 We are all familiar with the use of nutritional supplements "antioxidants" to help fight damage caused by oxidative processes in respiration. Figure 4. The size of the HBOC appears to play a role in this pressor effect. In addition to [latex]\text{P}_{\text{O}_2}[/latex], other environmental factors and diseases can affect oxygen carrying capacity and delivery. In: Grippi, MA. San Rafael (CA): Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences; 2011. This short half-life could potentially limit clinical uses in traumatic injury and hemorrhagic shock. The surprising . StudyCorgi. The constant of proportionality (K) is called Krogh's diffusion coefficient (see below) to distinguish it from D: For gas exchange across an alveolus in the lung, A and x are the same for all gases; different transfer rates result from differences in K and P. If you use an assignment from StudyCorgi website, it should be referenced accordingly. Finally, a description of artificial oxygen carriers will be presented. Fluorocarbons vary in shape and size, but share many of the same general chemical characteristics. Factors That Affect Oxygen Binding The oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin determines how much oxygen is carried in the blood. If you have a chronic health condition that affects your lungs, blood, or circulation, regularly tracking your oxygen saturation is important. The ability of an individual to take in oxygen and distribute it to working tissues, as well as the capability of working body tissues to use oxygen, is measured by oxygen uptake. Factors other than partial pressure also affect the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation/dissociation curve. Hemoglobin transports most of the oxygen in the lungs to the metabolizing tissues;. Fluorocarbons have a high gas-dissolving capacity and low viscosity but are highly insoluble in aqueous solutions; they must be emulsified in order to travel through the circulatory system. Rate of oxygen delivery to the capillary . [8] Pain can be caused by a myriad of conditions including tissue distention, infection, ischemia, lipedema, etc. The heart pumps the oxygen to the muscles during the aerobic workout, the body uses the oxygen taken in and produces more carbon dioxide as one exercises. This curve is highly nonlinear in the normal physiological range of PO2 (i.e., 40 to 100 mm Hg). The fractional volume of blood occupied by RBCs is called the hematocrit, and its value is a little less than 50% in human adults (40% for females and 45% for males). Pulmonary function testing. Thus, the rate of CO2 diffusion is 0.85 24 = 20 times as rapid as that for O2 given the same partial pressure difference. Next, a discussion of the effects of carbon monoxide on oxygen binding will be presented. Oxygen delivery (DO2) is the amount of oxygen transported per unit time and is dependent on the oxygen content of the blood and the flow of the blood. higher temperatures cause a "shift to the right" in the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, which means where cells are doing lots of cellular respiration (at the tissues), the temperatures are warmer & O2 falls off of Hb more readily. METHODS: A lung model simulating spontaneous breathing was connected to the head of a manikin. The oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve, also called the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve or oxygen dissociation curve (ODC), is a curve that plots the proportion of hemoglobin in its saturated (oxygen-laden) form on the vertical axis against the prevailing oxygen tension on the horizontal axis. 67104, 1974. Blood volume. StudyCorgi. Mixing time is widely used to characterize mixing efficiency in a bioreactor. AC Guyton, (more). Effect of carbon monoxide on the oxygen dissociation curve. In addition to P O2, other environmental factors and diseases can affect oxygen carrying capacity and delivery.. kLa is kept constant for this scenario. By Franz Wiesbauer, MD MPH and Rainer Oberbauer, MD MSc, Awarded in the digital category of the BMA Book Awards - London 2017, Highly commended by the British Medical Association. 'Oxygen availability' consists of two main compo-nents: blood flow and oxygen content (which is the product of haemoglobin concentration and oxygen saturation). surfactant: A lipoprotein in the tissues of the lung that reduces surface tension and permits more efficient gas transport. 67104, 1974. The net result may be compromised oxygen delivery to tissues of the body. Where kLa is the mass transfer coefficient from the gas to liquid phase, given in sec, kL = liquid side mass transfer coefficient (resistance in gas side film can be neglected), a = bubble surface (available for diffusion). The delivery of oxygen (DO 2) to the myocardium (oxygen supply) is determined by two factors: coronary blood flow (CBF) and the oxygen content (concentration) of the arterial blood (CaO 2 ). Bioreactor physical characteristics at the different scales are altered to provide the necessary OTR at controlled temperature, pH, and DO to achieve the target cell density. A person's V. O 2 max level depends on body build and composition and is affected by the following factors: 1. Friend: What Are the Main Qualities of a True One? Factors Affecting Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the process through which a plant converts light energy into chemical energy in order to create food. Most O 2 in the blood is bound to hemoglobin inside the erythrocyte. After pulmonary gas exchange takes place, the composition of arterial blood is shown (PaO2, [O2]a and (more). Due to its low solubility in liquid phase and increasing metabolic consumption by the cells with time, oxygen is supplied continuously to the cell culture. The pulmonary system is made up of the nose, trachea, larynx, bronchi and lungs. Oxygen Combined with Hemoglobin. 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